Othello Coursework Essay

Othello is one of Shakespeare’s tragedies but also a love story of two lovers. Shakespeare’s tragic heroes always had at least one main flaw, which contributed to their downfall. In Othello’s case it was jealousy; when he was told Desdemona was having an affair. Other themes the play deals with includes hatred, racism, betrayal and discrimination. Although Othello is the main protagonist in the play, however, in many ways Iago seems to be the dominant character. Iago is presented in complete contrast to Othello, and is the villain of the play. Othello is a respected high-ranking general whereas Iago is a lower status and referred to as in his ‘ancient’ or his ‘ensign’. Many critics often describe Iago as the narrator of ‘Othello’; a fascinating character who is the main focus of the play. Many critics also see Iago as an intriguing character as he can be unpredictable. At the beginning of the play, it is Iago and Roderigo who are the first on stage, not Othello. If one were to form an opinion of Othello from this discussion, it would not be a favourable one. The audience is made aware of Iago’s hatred of Othello because Othello promoted Cassio instead of him and his belief that Othello slept with his wife. Furthermore Roderigo is jealous of the fact that Othello has taken Desdemona as his wife. In Act 2 Scene 3 of Othello, Iago is presented as the puppeteer, constantly manipulating everyone around him. Critics have argued about Iago’s motives for wanting to hurt others but in this scene he comes across as cruel and malicious. The scene is set in a castle and opens with Iago trying to get Cassio drunk. Iago motivated by his lust for power is attempting to dispose Cassio of his position as a lieutenant. Knowing that Cassio cannot handle his liquor it would be more likely he would fight if he’s drunk and that would make him look bad in Othello’s eyes. The opening scene presents us with a brief exchange of Cassio and Iago controversial analysis on Desdemona. In the dialogue, Cassio remarks are polite and complimentary to Desdemona stating she is ‘exquisite lady’, ‘fresh’, ‘delicate creature’, ‘modest’ and ‘perfection’. Iago on the other hand has a contrasting view compared to Cassio. Iago suggests that Desdemona is ‘full of game’ and ‘sport’ and that there is ‘provocation’ in her eye suggests both characters have different views on women. Iago’s low opinion of Desdemona only deepens his misogynist view and his hate for women because of the control Desdemona has over Othello. This can portrays his jealousy because Desdemona is an extremely attractive character with a higher noble status than his wife, giving him a reason to hate Othello. Iago has the opportunity to consider his plans in his soliloquy when Cassio leaves to invite some friends for a drink. One way we can tell the presentation of Iago as a character in Act 2 Scene 3 is through his soliloquies. It reveals Iago’s true character and intention to get Cassio drunk so that he loses control and becomes quarrelsome to get into a fight with Roderigo, ‘Am I to put our Cassio in some action’. His skills of persuasions show his power to manipulate people into trusting him to cover his act of being an ‘honest’ friend that adds to the presentation of his character. Iago’s clever perspective to observer this from a person allows the audience insight into various schemes or secrets to his motives that other characters are blind to. Furthermore, Iago’s understanding and manipulating the weakness of those around him make him a powerful and compelling figure that Shakespeare have portray in this scene. Cassio who has been left in a position of responsibility by Othello will shame himself as a lieutenant and loose his position as part of Iago’s plan that will gain him power for his talent of understanding and manipulating people’s weaknesses, ‘If consequences do but approve my dream’. Iago states he is willing to take on revenge on anyone that gets in his way of achieving Othello’s downfall. The end result would make up for what he lost on his way and enjoys the pain and damage he causes which he ‘approves’. The first soliloquy in this act shows us how narrow-minded Iago is and lacks emotions or feelings towards the people around him or himself. W. H Auden describes Iago as a â€Å"Practical joker of a peculiar appalling kind. † W. H attempts to portray Iago as a more humane character than he really is. Loyalty, love, friendship and guilt are all emotions that make us human. Iago misunderstands this concept of feelings, which leads him to his downfall. Shakespeare presents Iago with loss of emotional connections in his character show the tragedy of how isolated Iago is. Shortly after Roderigo raises the alarm under Iago’s instructions, Shakespeare uses dramatic irony to present Iago’s actions as he pretends to be the peacemaker. Othello aroused from his sleep ask ‘honest Iago’ for an explanation of the disturbance. Without being disloyal to Othello or to Cassio, he ironically follows Montano’s advice upon his honour as a solider to tell the truth of his version of the night’s events. While trying to save Cassio by making excuses for him, Iago endures that Othello will have no other option than to remove him as his position for causing a shameful public display. The irony of Iago’s account, we known that Iago constantly tries to underplay Cassio’s part in the fight, ‘I had rather ha’ this tongue cut from my mouth, Than it should do offence to Michael Cassio. ’ With subtle additions such as, ‘And Cassio high in oaths, which till tonight / I ne’er might see before’ and ‘ but men are men, the best sometimes forget’ reveals that Cassio has disgraced himself to befit a high ranking officer. Cassio sacked from his lieutenant position, Iago pretends to be a true friend by advising Cassio to seek help from Desdemona to gain his position back. ‘This broken joint between you and her husband entreat her to splinter’. Shakespeare cleverly portrays Iago as an evil mastermind who appears to aid Cassio, instead manipulating the situation in order to make it appear to Othello that Desdemona has emotions for Cassio when she pleads for his job. This sequence allows us to see Iago’s manipulative nature in a continuous flow; from the way he has made others see him to the revelation of his true self. The way he’s portrayed, we are amazed by his mastery of switching facades or identities without a trace of guilt. Iago when speaking with Montano, questions Cassio integrity and his position as a Lieutenant. Iago manages to suggest his support and concern for his comrade while at the same time, destroying his credibility and honour. He mentions to Montano that Cassio is a ‘solider fit to stand by Caesar’ as 2nd in command but his drinking habits matches his ‘virtue’ and implies he drinks every night. Iago’s apparent concerns furthers as he criticises Othello’s judgement for trusting Cassio to be his lieutenant shows his jealousy to be overshadowed and therefore lost his ‘social class’’ that he lacks of. His hatred dominates him just like he dominates all the other characters. Iago seems to master all the emotions that might affect his facade and never shows a trace of nervousness that intensify the power he has over the characters in the play and his ability to control the situation to his will. Furthermore when Iago protests to Montano that he is reluctant to highlight Cassio’s problems to Othello, as he ‘loves’ Cassio and would not wish him any harm. The irony of this situation is the fact that once Montano suggest it would be an ‘honest action’ to inform Othello, Iago declines. This is the only time we see Iago is speechless and to make him look more trustworthy, he implies that his allegiance is to a higher kind of ‘honesty’.

Succubus Revealed Chapter 13

Roman was impossible to live with after that. He refused to tell me any more details, only that Seth needed to undergo hypnosis and that more would be revealed once that happened. â€Å"But don't you think I should know now?† I demanded, for what felt like the hundredth time the following day. â€Å"I don't want to influence either of you,† came the response. â€Å"Just in case I'm wrong.† â€Å"I thought you said you'd figured it out! You're saying now that there's a chance you might be wrong?† â€Å"There's always a chance,† he said pragmatically. â€Å"But I don't think I'm wrong.† And with that infuriating response, there was nothing I could do except wait and speculate. I couldn't figure out what exactly Roman planned on doing with hypnosis, but at least it seemed relatively safe. I wouldn't have put it past Roman to say, â€Å"Let's stage a trap for some demons and use Seth as bait.† There were worse things than being hypnotized into clucking like a chicken, I supposed. It took a number of days to get an answer. The delay came from finding a time when both Seth and Hugh were available. Despite his many formidable skills, hypnosis apparently wasn't in Roman's repertoire. It was, however, in Hugh's, which I found kind of surprising. When I asked him about it, he explained that he'd once been at a medical conference, during which participants were required to take a certain number of seminars. He'd chosen hypnosis because he thought it would be a blow-off class. â€Å"It was actually harder than it seemed,† he remarked. â€Å"I did some more follow-up on it after the conference. Dabbled here and there. Haven't put it to much use since then, aside from an ill-fated date last year.† â€Å"Are you going to be able to do what Roman needs you to today?† I nodded toward my living room, where Roman was pacing like a caged animal. We were all waiting on Seth to show up, and Roman kept obsessing over small details necessary to create â€Å"the perfect hypnotic environment.† He was constantly adjusting the lighting and moving the recliner. Sometimes he'd put it in the center of the room. Other times, he'd drag it to the side, where there were more shadows. We'd given up on trying to advise him. He was too irritable and wound up. Hugh frowned, watching Roman. â€Å"I don't know. What he asked me to do . . . well, it's pretty basic, as far as technique goes. It's what he wants me to do with it that's kind of wacky. I've read up on it a little this week, and honestly . . . I don't know if it's going to work.† I still didn't know what â€Å"it† was and had resigned myself to patience. Seth arrived shortly thereafter, mood bright and optimistic. Andrea's improvement after Carter's visit had been remarkable, and it was affecting everyone in the household. I crossed my fingers every day that Hell wouldn't send someone back to undo what Carter had done. Seth gave me a half hug and kissed me on the lips, a further sign of his good mood since he was usually so reserved in front of others. â€Å"You missed a good time,† he told me. He was wearing a Princess Bride shirt today. â€Å"I took Kendall and the twins Christmas shopping. They got Ian some used copies of The Metamorphosis and Candide.† â€Å"He's into those?† I asked. â€Å"I mean, they're great books, but I just never thought of them as his thing.† â€Å"Well, they aren't mainstream best sellers – like some people's sellout books – so he's into the elitist appeal. He likes to go to coffee shops – obscure ones that you've never been to, naturally – and pretend to read counterculture literature. He'll be glad to have the new material.† Seth's amusement faded as he took in the living room, with all its drawn shades and Roman carefully arranging the recliner (again). Noticing our attention, Roman paused and glanced between the three of us. â€Å"I wasn't sure what background noise would work best, so I loaded a few different things onto my iPod. I've got ocean waves, wind chimes, and white noise.† Hugh shrugged. â€Å"Makes no difference to me. I'm not the one being hypnotized.† â€Å"I'm still not sure I can be hypnotized,† said Seth. â€Å"But if it doesn't matter . . . hmm, are there seagulls with the ocean waves?† â€Å"Yes,† said Roman. â€Å"Then let's go white noise.† Roman obligingly started it up, filling the room with what sounded more like faulty radio reception than soothing neutral sounds. â€Å"Maybe you should keep it at a low volume,† I suggested delicately. â€Å"You know, you don't want it to be so soothing that Seth falls asleep.† Roman looked dubious, but at a nod from Seth, the volume decreased. I might not understand how hypnotizing Seth was going to play into Hell's greater plans, but so long as Roman believed it was necessary, Seth got to call the shots. Seth gave me a quick hand squeeze and a smile that was meant to be reassuring. He didn't like immortal affairs but had accepted this crazy venture for me. Following Roman's direction, Seth settled himself into the recliner and eased it back. Hugh pulled up a stool near Seth, but Roman and I sat on the periphery of the living room. Hypnosis required a minimum of distractions, which we clearly were. I'd even had to lock the cats up in my bedroom earlier, to make sure Aubrey and Godiva didn't decide to jump on Seth's lap mid-session. â€Å"Okay,† said Hugh, after clearing his throat. â€Å"Are you ready?† He took out a small notepad, filled with his illegible writing. It was the most low-tech thing I'd seen him use in a while. â€Å"Ready as I'll ever be,† said Seth. Hugh glanced at Roman and me briefly, perhaps in case we had a last-minute change of heart, and then returned to the notepad. â€Å"Okay, close your eyes and take a deep breath. . . .† I was familiar with some of the basics of hypnosis, and the exercises that Hugh began with were pretty standard. Although Seth had been joking, I too honestly wondered if he could be hypnotized. Part of his nature as a writer was to focus on all the details of the world, making it difficult to hone in on one thing sometimes. Of course, he could also show single-mindedness for his work, and that was the attribute that soon came out. After a few minutes of guided breathing, it became clear that Seth was definitely growing more and more relaxed. I almost thought he'd actually fallen asleep, until Hugh began asking him questions. Seth responded, eyes closed, voice perfectly steady. â€Å"I want you to go back,† said Hugh. â€Å"Back in your memories. Go past your thirties, into your twenties. From there, think about your college years. Then high school.† He allowed a pause. â€Å"Are you thinking about high school?† â€Å"Yes,† said Seth. â€Å"Okay. Go further back in time, back to middle school. Then elementary school. Can you remember a time before then? Before you started school?† There was a slight delay before Seth spoke. Then: â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"What is your earliest memory?† â€Å"In a boat, with my father and Terry. We're on a lake.† â€Å"What are they doing?† â€Å"Fishing.† â€Å"What are you doing?† â€Å"Watching. Sometimes I get to help hold a pole. But mostly I just watch.† I felt a knot form in my stomach. I didn't fully understand Roman's strategy here, but there was something terribly personal and vulnerable about what we were doing, listening to these memories. Seth rarely spoke of his father, who had passed away when Seth was in his early teens, and it seemed wrong to â€Å"make† him do it in this state. â€Å"Go back even further. Can you remember anything before that? Any earlier memories?† asked Hugh. He seemed uneasy, a sharp contrast to Seth's utter calmness. † No. â€Å" â€Å"Try,† said Hugh. â€Å"Try to go back further.† â€Å"I . . . I'm in a kitchen. The kitchen at our first house, in a high chair. My mom's feeding me, and Terry's walking through the door. He runs to her and hugs her. He's been gone all day, and I don't understand where he's been.† School, if I had to guess. I tried to put an age on this memory, using what I knew of the age difference between the brothers. How long did kids stay in high chairs? And how young would he have to be to not understand the concept of school? Three? Two? â€Å"That's great,† said Hugh. â€Å"That's really great. Now keep going even more. Go back to something even earlier.† I frowned, thinking they were kind of pushing it now. I was no expert in human memory, but I thought I'd once read about how two was the age when memories really began forming. Seth seemed to struggle with this as well, frowning despite his otherwise calm exterior. â€Å"Okay,† he said. â€Å"I've got one.† â€Å"Where are you?† said Hugh. â€Å"I don't know.† â€Å"What do you see?† â€Å"My mother's face.† â€Å"Anything else?† â€Å"No. That's all I remember of that.† â€Å"That's okay,† said Hugh. â€Å"Now find something else before that. Any memory. Any image or sensation.† â€Å"There's nothing,† said Seth. â€Å"Try,† said Hugh, not looking nearly as confident as he sounded. â€Å"It doesn't matter how vague it is. Anything you can remember. Anything at all.† â€Å"I . . . there's nothing,† said Seth, the frown deepening. â€Å"I can't remember anything before that.† â€Å"Try,† repeated Hugh. â€Å"Go further back.† This was getting ridiculous. I opened my mouth to protest, but Roman caught hold of my arm, silencing me. I glared at him, hoping I could convey all my frustrations at what they were doing to Seth in one look. Roman simply shook his head and mouthed Wait. â€Å"I remember . . . I remember faces. Faces looking at me. Everyone's so much bigger than me. But they're mostly shadows and light. I can't see . . . can't comprehend much detail.† Seth paused. â€Å"That's it. That's all there is.† â€Å"You're doing good,† said Hugh. â€Å"You're doing great. Just listen to the sound of my voice, and keep breathing. We need to go back even earlier. What do you remember before that? Before the faces?† â€Å"Nothing,† said Seth. â€Å"There's nothing there. Just blackness.† Roman shifted in his chair, going rigid. He leaned forward, eyes bright and excited. Hugh glanced over questioningly, and Roman gave an eager nod. Swallowing, Hugh turned back to Seth. â€Å"I need you . . . to go past the blackness. Go to the other side of it.† â€Å"I can't,† said Seth. â€Å"It's a wall. I can't cross it.† â€Å"You can,† said Hugh. â€Å"Listen to my voice. I'm telling you, you can. Push back in your memories, past the memories of this life, to the other side of the blackness. You can do it.† â€Å"I . . . I can't – † Seth cut himself off. For a moment, there was no other sound save the white noise on Roman's iPod, though it was a wonder I couldn't hear the pounding of my own heart. The frown that had been intensifying on Seth's face abruptly smoothed out. â€Å"I'm there.† Hugh shifted awkwardly, disbelief registering on his face. â€Å"You are? What are you doing? Where are you?† â€Å"I . . .† The frown returned, but it was different in nature. It was distress from the memory itself, not the effort. â€Å"I'm bleeding. In an alley.† â€Å"Are you . . . are you Seth Mortensen?† Hugh's voice was a whisper. † No. â€Å" â€Å"What's your name?† â€Å"Luc.† The frown smoothed again. â€Å"And now I'm dead.† â€Å"Go back to the alley,† said Hugh, regaining his courage. â€Å"Before you . . . before, um, Luc died. How did it happen? Why were you bleeding?† â€Å"I was stabbed,† said Seth. â€Å"I was trying to defend a woman. A woman I loved. She said we couldn't be together, but I know she didn't mean it. Even if she didn't, I still would've died for her. I had to protect her.† It was about that point that I stopped breathing. â€Å"Where are you?† Hugh reconsidered his question. â€Å"Do you know the year?† â€Å"It's 1942. I live in Paris.† Roman reached across me to a stray catalog on a chair. Producing a pen, he scrawled something on the catalog's cover and then handed it to Hugh. Hugh read it and then gently placed it on the floor. â€Å"Tell me about the woman,† he said to Seth. â€Å"What's her name?† â€Å"Her name is Suzette.† Someone let out a strangled gasp. Me. I stood up then, and Roman jerked me back down. A million protests sprang to my lips, and he actually had the audacity to clamp a hand over my mouth. He shook his head sharply and hissed in my ear, â€Å"Listen.† Listen? Listen? He had no idea what he was asking. He had no idea what he was hearing. For that matter, I wasn't sure either. All I knew was that there was no way this could be happening. Much like the night I'd gotten into bed with Ian, I had the surreal feeling that the only way any of this could be real was if I'd accidentally stumbled into someone else's life. â€Å"Tell me about Suzette,† said Hugh. â€Å"She has blond hair and blue eyes,† said Seth levelly. â€Å"She moves like music, but none of the music I make can compare to her. She's so beautiful . . . but so cruel. Not that I think she means to be. I think she believes she's helping.† â€Å"Go back now,† said Hugh. â€Å"Back to your childhood, Seth – I mean, Luc. Go back to your earliest memories as Luc. Are you there?† â€Å"Yes,† said Seth. â€Å"What do you see?† â€Å"My mother's funeral, though I don't understand it. She was sick.† â€Å"Okay. I need you to go back again, younger and younger, back until you hit more blackness. Can you do that? Can you find it again?† Again, the rest of us held our breath, waiting for Seth to respond. â€Å"Yes,† he said. Hugh exhaled. â€Å"Go to the other side of that blackness, back before Luc. You can cross it. You did it before.† â€Å"Yes. I'm there.† â€Å"What is your name now?† â€Å"My name is Etienne. I live in Paris . . . but it's a different Paris. An earlier Paris. There are no Germans here.† â€Å"What do you do for a living?† â€Å"I'm an artist. I paint.† â€Å"Is there a woman in your life? Girlfriend? Wife?† â€Å"There's a woman, but she's none of those. I pay to be with her. She's a dancer named Josephine.† I began to feel ill. The world was spinning, and I lowered my head, willing everything to settle back to its rightful order. I didn't need to hear Seth next describe Josephine. I could've done it down to the last curl. â€Å"Do you love her?† Hugh asked Seth. â€Å"Yes. But she doesn't love me back.† â€Å"What happens to her?† â€Å"I don't know. I ask her to marry me, but she says she won't. That she can't. She tells me to find someone else, but there is no one else. How can there be?† Hugh had no answer for that, but he had his rhythm now. He kept repeating the pattern, pushing Seth back further and further through impossible memories, always crossing that black wall, always asking Seth's name and location, where he was, and if there was a woman who'd broken his heart. â€Å"My name is Robert. I live in Philadelphia, the first of my family born in the New World. We run a newspaper, and I love a woman who works for us. Her name is Abigail, and I think she loves me too . . . but she disappears one night without a word.† â€Å"My name is Niccol. I'm an artist in Florence. It's 1497 . . . and there's this woman . . . this amazing woman. Her name is Bianca, but . . . she betrays me.† â€Å"My name is Andrew. I'm a priest in southern England. There's a woman named Cecily, but I can't allow myself to love her, not even when the plague takes me. . . .† On and on it went, and with each step Hugh helped Seth take back, part of my heart broke. All of this was impossible. Seth couldn't have lived all these lives and times he was describing – and not just because of the obvious problems of life and death as we knew them. Seth wasn't just describing his lives. He was describing mine. I had lived every one of these lives that Seth described. I had been Suzette, Josephine, Abigail, Bianca, Cecily . . . They were all identities I'd assumed, people I'd become when Hell had transferred me to new places over the centuries. I would reinvent myself, take on a new name, appearance, and vocation. For every one of my identities Seth mentioned, I had lived a dozen more. But the ones he talked about . . . the ones he claimed to know as well, they were the ones that stuck out to me. Because although I'd had countless lovers, in countless places, there were a handful who had struck some part of my soul, a handful whom I had truly loved, despite the impossibility of our situations. And Seth was touching upon every one of them, checking them off like items on a grocery list. Only, he wasn't just talking about these men I'd loved. He was talking about being them. Whereas I had created these lives, he was acting as though he'd been born into them, born as these lovers I'd had, only to die and be reborn again in some other place with me. . . . It was impossible. It was terrifying. And eventually, it stopped. â€Å"That's it,† said Seth at last. â€Å"I can't go back further.† â€Å"You know you can,† said Hugh. â€Å"You've done it before. Are you at the blackness again?† â€Å"Yes . . . but it's different than before. It's not like the others. It's more solid. Harder to cross. Impossible to cross.† â€Å"Not impossible,† said Hugh. â€Å"You've already proven that. Cross back to the next life.† â€Å"I can't.† The thing was, I was beginning to agree with Seth. I didn't think there was anything else he could go back to, not if he was paralleling my lives. I'd jumped ahead of him at one point and made some educated guesses on what he would say, and I'd been right each time. I knew how many great loves I'd had as a succubus, and there were none left. Before Seth, there had been eight. â€Å"Push through,† urged Hugh. â€Å"I can't,† said Seth. â€Å"They won't let me. I'm not supposed to remember.† â€Å"Remember what?† â€Å"That life. The first life.† â€Å"Why not?† â€Å"It's part of the bargain. My bargain. No, wait. Not mine. Hers, I think. I'm not supposed to remember her. But how can I not?† It was another of those rhetorical questions, and Hugh looked to Roman and me for help. The imp had been confident there for a while, once the lives began rolling off so easily, but this was something different. Seth wasn't making a lot of sense, not that this had all been particularly crystal clear so far. Roman made gestures that seemed to be both encouraging and impatient, with a general notion that Hugh should improvise. â€Å"Who's this bargain with?† asked Hugh. â€Å"I . . . I don't know. They're just there, waiting for me in the blackness. After the first life. I'm supposed to go on to the light, but I can't. There's something missing. I'm incomplete. My life has been incomplete . . . but I can't remember why. . . .† Seth furrowed his brow, straining with the effort of remembering. â€Å"I just know I can't move on. So they make a bargain.† â€Å"What's the bargain?† â€Å"I can't remember.† â€Å"Yes, you can,† said Hugh, surprisingly gentle. â€Å"You were just talking about it.† â€Å"I don't remember the details.† â€Å"You said it was about you being incomplete. Something was missing.† â€Å"No . . . someone. My soul mate.† Seth's breathing, which had been so steady throughout all of this, grew a little shaky. â€Å"I'm supposed to go on with her, into the light. I can feel it. I wasn't supposed to live that life alone. I wasn't supposed to go to the light afterward alone. But she's not there. She's not anywhere I can get to now. They say they'll give me a chance to find her, a chance to find her and remember. They say I can have ten lives to be with her again but that one is used up. Then I have to go with them forever.† â€Å"This life that you can't remember,† prompted Hugh. â€Å"You said it's your first life, right? The one that's on the other side of this, uh, extra thick wall of blackness? The life they say you've already used?† â€Å"Yes,† said Seth. â€Å"That's the first. The one I'm supposed to forget.† â€Å"You can remember it,† said Hugh. â€Å"You're already remembering parts of it, things you aren't supposed to. Go to the other side of the blackness, before the bargain, before your death. What do you remember?† â€Å"Nothing.† â€Å"Do you remember a woman? Think about the bargain. The soul mate. Can you remember her?† Seth's silence stretched into eternity. â€Å"I . . . yes. Kind of. I feel her absence, though I don't understand it at the time.† â€Å"Have you made it back yet?† asked Hugh. â€Å"To the first life?† â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"What is your name?† â€Å"Kyriakos.† â€Å"Do you know where you are? Where you live?† â€Å"I live south of Pafos.† The name meant nothing to Hugh, but it meant everything to me. I began to slowly shake my head, and Roman gripped hold of my arm again. I'm not sure what he was afraid I'd do. It seemed to be an all-purpose attempt to keep me from interrupting the nightmare unfolding before me, either with word or movement. He needn't have worried. The rest of me was frozen. â€Å"Do you know the year?† asked Hugh. â€Å"No,† said Seth. â€Å"What do you do?† Hugh asked. â€Å"What's your job?† â€Å"I'm a musician. Unofficially. Mostly I work for my father. He's a merchant.† â€Å"Is there a woman in your life?† † No. â€Å" â€Å"You just said there was. Your soul mate.† Seth considered. â€Å"Yes . . . but she's not there. She was, and then she wasn't.† â€Å"If she was, then you must be able to remember her. What's her name?† He shook his head. â€Å"I can't. I'm not supposed to remember her.† â€Å"But you can. You're already doing it. Tell me about her.† â€Å"I don't remember,† said Seth, the faintest touch of frustration in his voice. â€Å"I can't.† Hugh tried a new tactic. â€Å"How do you feel? How do you feel when you think of her?† â€Å"I feel . . . wonderful. Complete. Happier than I ever believed possible. And yet . . . at the same time, I feel despair. I feel horrible. I want to die.† â€Å"Why? Why do you feel both happiness and despair?† â€Å"I don't know,† said Seth. â€Å"I don't remember.† â€Å"You do. You can remember.† â€Å"Roman,† I breathed, finding my voice at last. â€Å"Make this stop.† He only shook his head, eyes riveted on Seth. Roman's entire body was filled with tension and eagerness, anxiously straining forward for the last pieces of info to fill out the theory he'd put together. â€Å"She . . . I loved her. She was my world. But she betrayed me. She betrayed me and tore my heart out.† â€Å"Her name,† said Hugh, catching some of Roman's excitement. â€Å"What was her name?† â€Å"I can't remember,† said Seth, shifting uncomfortably. â€Å"It's too terrible. They made me forget. I want to forget.† â€Å"But you didn't,† said Roman, suddenly standing up. â€Å"You didn't forget it. What is it? What is the woman's name?† Seth's eyes flew open, either because of his own inner turmoil or from Roman breaking the trance. Either way, the calm state of relaxation was gone. Raw emotions played over Seth's features: shock, sorrow, hate. And as he gazed around and reoriented himself to his surroundings, his eyes – and all of those dark, terrible feelings – focused on me. â€Å"Letha,† he gasped. â€Å"Her name is Letha.†

Inflation, Unemployment and Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Inflation, Unemployment and Growth - Essay Example One disadvantage is the distortion in weighted averages. It may produce wrongful information on inflation. 3. The current inflation rate is at o.6%. The core rate of inflation is the annual rise in consumer expenditure. This rate was at 3.3%. The inflation rate for health care services was measured at 1.7%. This is with the gradual increase in the consumer price index of urban consumers. 4. A fall in price levels of a commodity over time is termed as deflation. One noteworthy thing brought on by deflation is a consumer’s purchasing power. More goods and services may be bought with little capital. It usually benefits people earning fixed income and consumers with less debt consumption. Japan’s experience with deflation started in the 1990’s. The creation of policies to end it did not assist. It did not create an increase in broad money which presented a problem. This led to an increase in deflation. There are more reasons to worry about deflation than inflation. One is the failure to repay debts. 5. Inflation is caused by the dependency of money-supply growth rate, and its relativity to the growth of the economy. To assist in reducing inflation, prices and wages need adjusting. This is to make other factors have a minimal effect on a trend line. 7. Internal method of valuing money involves the reverse value of prices. Increases in price levels mean that, the amount of goods purchased by a single unit also decrease. The external method of valuing money involves calculating the amount of foreign currency, which is bought from a domestic money unit. 8. The producer price index measures average changes in prices. These are prices expected by resident manufacturers for the total output produced. The use of the PPI is to measure the force being put on manufacturers by the costs of their raw resources. 12. Difference among the measures of unemployment, for example, U1 involves people who

Impact of technology on Business Communication Essay

Impact of technology on Business Communication - Essay Example In fact, prospective clients or customers will be better impressed knowing they are dealing with businesses that have good business technology tools rather than one with out-dated resources. Business communication also involves internal contact and technology has also greatly improved this aspect in many organizations. With this, messages can be sent electronically instead of raising internal memos, which has a possibility of being missed when staffs are not informed. Managers travelling frequently can also keep in touch with the employees regularly and thus, obtain updates or resolve issues in an instant. Indeed, technology has allowed for a faster and more efficient way of business dealing. The creation of company websites and the availability of search engines mean businesses are at the advantage of reaching out to far more audiences, both internal and external parties, with the necessary information about the company, as well as its products and services. Of course, the benefits of technology are only apparent when users are ethical. Otherwise, it can do more harm than good.

Modern Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Modern Architecture - Essay Example One of the latest styles of architecture that emerged in the 20th century is Modern architecture. Modern architecture can be best described as a style which believes that "Less is more". The major proponent of this style is Ludwig Mies van der Rohe which thought of the "Less is more" theme for modern architecture. Modern architecture is known for its rejection of the classical styles (historicism) and believes that the materials and functions of the objects used in the structure is the end all and be all of the structure. It also firmly applies the principle of industrial aesthetic and the concept of functionality over being ornamental. Unnecessary details are removed and all design aspects are streamlined ("Modern Architecture", 006a). "Less is more" emphasises that every part of the structure must have a purpose other than being ornate and that every part must compliment each other in terms of function. In modern architectural design, the overall from and aesthetic value of a structure is determined by its function and the materials it is made from. This should be done without reverting to classical design concepts. A structure, commonly a building is envisioned as a wide governing space that rests on delicate foundations and surrounded by walls and ceilings complementing the foundations rather than a chunk of rock and other materials. Modern architectural design is mostly based on industrial concepts and by modern art styles such as abstract and impressionism. Le Corbusier's book entitled Vers une architecture (1923, tr. 1927) is a very good source of inspiration for modern architectural styles as well as the writings of Dutch architect J. J. P. Oud and German architect Walter Gropius, who handled the design of the Bauhaus in Dessau. Other early proponents of the modern movement include: German architects such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Marcel Breuer, Ernst May along with Americ an architects Raymond Hood, Albert Kahn, Richard J. Neutra, William Lescaze, and George Howe ("Form and Materials." 2006).Modern architectural style is also known as 'International style', 'Neue Sachlichkeit', and 'functionalism' and has been around after the end of World War II. Modern architecture relies on modern materials, the principles of functionality and the rejection of historicism and everything that is purely ornamental ("Modern architecture." 2006b). early forms of modern architecture were seen in the 1900's, but modern architecture was not formalised yet. Those times saw the advent of simplified and functional structures that eventually became the signature of modern architecture. By the 1940's the characteristics of this style were identified and given the name 'International Style' which became the trend for most building styles in the twentieth century. Some historians think that modern architecture is a response of the society to 'Modernity' and further in to the so -called 'Enlightenment'. They view it as a result of all the social and political turmoil that happened during that period. Critics and architectural experts however view modern architecture as the natural path of architecture fuelled by the latest advancements in structural technology and development in engineering. Also the availability of modern materials such as Plexiglas, metal alloys concrete etc. drove

BMW Group Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

BMW Group - Case Study Example The limited profits earned by the company were due to the "model life-cycle factors" which significantly enhanced the car sales volumes. During this period, the BMW group sold less than 350,000 automobile units, which includes BMW, Mini and Rolls-Royce. The figure of the units sold was less than 5percent against the units sold in the previous year. During the contemporary year, more than 1,200,000 units were sold in the market which is approximately 2percent greater than previous year's figure. The financial performance of the group is severely restricted by the "market conditions for the motorcycle business"; the conditions are regarded as severe and crucial for the market. The sales of the motorcycles produced by BMW have shown similar trend, during the third quarter of the running year the sales volume is almost equivalent to the sales of the previous year. The units of motorcycles sold in the market were less than 3percent of the figures sold in the previous year. The financial c risis has been responsible for the negative impact of the BMW group. In the wake of international economic crisis, the customers have practiced reluctance in procurement of the automobiles unit, "the third-quarter revenues reported by the company, decreased by 8.6 % to euro 12,588 million". During the running economic recession, the company was able to collect revenues of euro 40,425 million, which was highest than the figures of than the figures of the previous year. The variation in the foreign exchange rates was also responsible for the improvement in the revenue generation, "the BMW Group revenues for the nine-month period were up by 5.1percent". The BMW group was controlled its expenses, and residual expenses have been eliminated, "the company increased the cumulative amount of expense recognised for additional risk provision for residual value and bad debt risks to a total of euro 1,037 million". The brief financial outlook for the BMW group for the third quarter of the runnin g year is reduction in the earnings by euro 258 million, profit dropped by 60percent to euro 387 million. The pre-tax earnings of the BMW group were truncated by the external factors, "pre-tax profit stood at euro 279 million for the third quarter, the amount is 63percent lower than one year earlier, while that for the nine-month period fell to euro 1,522 million" (Citigroup, 2008). The net profit earned by the company stood at euro 298 million for the third quarter. The running economic recession has severely dampened the financial outlook of the company for the years to come (Bilgen, 2004). The business conditions are not encouraging, the market is volatile, and this has "deteriorated further for the BMW Group over the past months". The financial crisis has escalated, and there is strong possibility of this recession will cause "noticeable reduction in consumer spending in numerous markets" (Citigroup, 2008). The BMW group is yet to experience the environmental challenges; the growing understanding of the consumers about green house gases emission has developed reluctance among the customer to acquire goods which shall be detrimental for the environment. The BMW group is trapped by "significant level of volatility on the financial and commodity markets, this poses the risk of even greater uncertainty". The purchasing power of the consumer has depleted, "private consumption and consumer confidence have dipped perceptibly, particularly in the USA and Europe".

The Old Testament vs the New Testament in The Scarlet Letter (OLD) and Essay

The Old Testament vs the New Testament in The Scarlet Letter (OLD) and Moby Dick (NEW) - Essay Example The effect of sin upon the human soul is the prevailing theme in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Book: â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† and he examined the unforgiving attitude of the Puritans towards sin in their treatment of adulteress Hester Prynne and their cruel punishment, which is akin to the harsh punishment and judgmental attitude of God as portrayed in the Old Testament. On the other hand, the book â€Å"Moby Dick† was written during the era of Protestantism when people were exhorted rather than coerced into conventional morality, where independence of thought and religion had set in and man was allowed a greater degree of flexibility in the wages for his sin, as exemplified in the New Testament through the teaching of Jesus where even the most grievous sinner could seek and find forgiveness. The quality of flexible thought is portrayed in the differing perspectives of the white whale that are presented in the book, Mody Dick. It may be viewed as an agent of evil or of good, depending upon the perspective of the viewer. This is the essence of the difference between the Old and New Testaments as well. As opposed to the harsh wages of sin in the Old Testament, the New Testament offers forgiveness to those who believe, therefore the wages of sin will depend upon the attitude of the sinner. The contrast between the attitude towards sin that is reflected in the old and New Testament is also revealed in the two works â€Å"Scarlet Letter† and â€Å"Moby Dick† with the former representing the path of the Old Testament and the latter the path of the New Testament. Hawthorne’s book centers around a female protagonist Hester Prynne, whose husband is captured in America and is away for many years. Hester commits adultery but refuses to divulge the name of her partner, who is later revealed to be none other than the priest of the community – Arthur Dimmesdale. Hester is publicly humiliated by the rigid Puritan society

Demostic Violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Demostic Violence - Essay Example A unified effort of the government and the civilians is necessary to be able to prevent domestic violence from happening in any home. Each individual has been born to a family, although some may have grown in a different environment; but it is a common knowledge that all human beings have experienced having a home. However, there has been a growing concern on the place that we call â€Å"home†, especially when public health is at risk, particularly, the effect of domestic violence. Domestic violence is defined as a form of behavior in a relationship where an individual uses different abuses such as physical, emotional or psychological to be able to control the other person. Threats and other actions, which inflict pain, humiliation, isolation or a sense of fear on the receiving party, or the victim, are also considered as domestic violence (US Department of Justice, 2012). The Domestic Violence Resource Center [DVRC] (2013) has consolidated different information on the occurrences of domestic violence in the United States. The data showed that women and children are the most common victims of domestic violence, but this does not exclude the occurrence of domestic violence where the victims are male. The social implication of domestic violence is of great concern for the government because of the effects of the trauma inflicted on the victims. The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence [NCADV] (n.d.) reported that very few incidences of domestic violence are reported to the police. Victims of domestic violence either fail or simply do not report the incident to the police because they find the situation a private matter, or since the offender is also a family member, the victims still intend to protect them despite what the offender had done (Durose et al, 2005). This implies that despite the legal policies implemented by the government, its efficiency remains at a minimum. This paper focuses on the legal aspects of domestic

Does Robert Bruce deserve to be remembered as a great Scottish king Essay - 3

Does Robert Bruce deserve to be remembered as a great Scottish king - Essay Example When Wallace was defeated, Bruce became the custodian of Scotland ruling it with Comyn but they later fell out. Robert Bruce was later excommunicated and banished from Scotland, leading to his exile in modern day Northern Ireland. However, Robert Bruce returned and waged a successful war against the English and their rulers, whereby at the Battle of Bannockburn, he defeated the English army that was under the command of Edward II. After this, the Declaration of Independence was made at Arbroath that made Scotland be recognized as an independent nation with Robert Bruce as the king of Scotland. Robert Bruce is considered one of the greatest kings in the history of Scotland as he led them to many victories against their enemies. This king was born of Norman and Celtic ancestries and led the Scots to most of the wars against the English, especially under King Edward I. Notable amongst his many victories is the victory achieved under his rule at Bannockburn in the year 1314, which culminated in the freedom of the Scots from English rule (Brown 2008, p. 1). Due to the supremacy of the English forces over their northern Scottish neighbours, the Scots were continuously humiliated in wars and battles over resources and territories. However, with the rise in the nationalist fervour amongst the Scots under the leadership of Robert Bruce, the English were defeated at the Battle of Bannockburn, which marked an important defining moment for Scotland and an evaluation of the greatness of Robert Bruce as a leader. The Battle of Bannockburn is considered the highlight of the greatness of Robert Bruce as a great and exceptional leader in the history of Scotland as he led Scottish forces to a major defeat against the English troops (Spiers 2011, p. 7). As at 1313, Robert Bruce had demanded that the remnants of the Balliol regime acknowledge him as the absolute king of the Scotland as well as surrender their

International Human Recourse Management Essay Example for Free

International Human Recourse Management Essay Undertake research to examine current trends and emerging issues within the field of International Human Resource Management (IHRM). What are some contrasting and recent frameworks, models and perspectives applied within the field of IHRM? The meaning of International Human Resource Management (IHRM) becomes more and more important in the last few years. The first time the term IHRM was used was in 1990, around the same time period ‘globalisation’ began. Initially the main function of IHRM was the organisation and management of expatriates (Festing, et al. , 2013, p. 161). In 2012 the foreign affiliates of Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) of the United Nations had reached 69 million workers (Dowling, et al., 2013, p. viii). Due to this fact it becomes clear the tremendous challenge IHRM faces in our time. Furthermore the world is getting more uniform and standardised because of the globalisation. With the impact of technical, commercial and cultural development, companies must rise to new challenges and a different way of thinking (Durham Kellner, 2006, p. 659). If we put all the different aspects together we can define IHRM as examining the HRM issues, problems, strategies, policies and practices which firms pursue in relation to the internationalisation of their business (Brewster, et al., 2011, p. 10). On the basis of current research, this essay will investigate trends and emerging issues in the field of IHRM. In the first wide field of global assignments and careers there have been changes in recent years due to the development of technology and worldwide integration. As organisations are increasingly affected by the forces of globalisation and the competition between the different companies, the prerequisites for employees are increasing as well. Due to these facts, the work life balance (WLB) has been subject to increasing investigation and has led to a significant emerging issue for all people especially international business travellers (Festing, et al., 2013). As a consequence,  WLB is receiving attention in the IHRM field. WLB consists of two different concepts: achievement and enjoyment. You cannot get the full value from life if you are only concentrated on one concept (WorkLifeBalance, 2014). One’s daily focus on achievement and enjoyment is based in all four life quadrants: work, family, friends and self WLB. WLB is already a significant topic for HRM, however it is ev en more important for frequent travellers. Due to this fact, in the field of IHRM, work life balance has been  investigated by Iris Kollinger-Santer and Iris C. Fischlmayr (2013). They focused on the difference between female and male international travellers and their WLB, finding that the different stressors related to travelling have a variable intensity according to gender. For instance, the lack of time for social contact or leisure activities is a stronger stress factor for women than for men. The family situation in particular is an important influence on each gender, with women missing their family more than men. Coping strategies also vary according to gender (Kollinger-Santer Fischlmayr). Beauregard and Henry (2009) bring different concepts to the issue of WLB. These authors try to make a link between work life balance practices and organisational performance. Therefore they discuss the differing importance of factors according to national context, job level, and managerial support and come to the conclusion that WLB practices are often combined with high organisational performance (Beauregards Henry). Another emerging challenge beside WLB is the different types of global assignments. In recent years, working abroad as an expatriate to get international experience and to develop global skills was considered an important skill. Organisations openly promoted this process. They wanted to give their employees work experience and transcend national boundaries. However, employees are often unwilling to work abroad or those who are  willing to work abroad are leaving their international assignments early or quitting their organisations once they repatriate because of the positive effects, such as promotions and salary advancement. Another aspect that favours this situation is to compensate for the out-of-sight, out-ofmind problem that occurs when employees are physically away from their home country’s organisation (Shaffer, et al.). Due to this fact a new emerging issue is taking place within IHRM. Organisations are looking for global work alternatives for their employees to gain global work experience without losing the employee afterwards. Besides the well-known kinds of work experience, such as corporate expatriation or self-initiated expatriation, some new ways to achieve global work experience are now offered to employees. Shaffer et al. (2012) sums up the existing ways to achieve international work experience and subdivided them along the three dimensions; physical mobility, cognitive flexibility, and nonwork disruptions. Based on this knowledge, the authors interpret the major findings from their review and develop a taxonomy of these experiences as a theoretical framework for analysing past studies. They point out that all of the global work  experiences were associated with different personal and nonwork demands especially, stress and family issues. However, Shaffer et al. claim that the specific stress factor varied by the different types of global work experience. Finally, they conclude that the real challenge is not the different types of global work, but is the combination of physically moving to a foreign country with the family and learning to adapt to a new culture that creates unique family demands associated with expatriate assignments (Shaffer, et al.). In addition to the new methods to get global work experience, Vaiman and Haslberger (2013) focus on the importance of  self-initiated expatriations and take a closer look at foreign executives in local organisations (FELOs). A FELO is a rare international crosscultural management phenomenon. To find the differences between an expatriate assignment and a FELO, one must take a deeper look at the subsidiaries of multinational organisations (FELO Research, 2014). Vaiman and Haslberger derive four different types of FELOs and various types of localised FELOs as well as typologies and organisation forms. Finally they examine global careers outside of traditional, company-backed expatriate assignments, and highlight the fact that there is a rising number of foreign executives appointed in recent years (Vaiman Haslberger). Global talent management (GTM) is a rapidly growing field within IHRM. GTM includes the connection between the importance of talent management and success in global business. In general the aim of talent management is the identification of well qualified employees in a global context and placing those people in key positions where they have the potential to impact the competitive advantage of the organisation (Scullion Collings, 2011, pp. 3-4). GTM is still an emerging field with debates regarding many aspects of its relevance IHRM (Festing, et al., 2013). For instance, Schuler et al. (2012) focus on various challenges in the area of GTM like dealing with talent shortages, talent surpluses, locating and relocating talent, and compensation levels of talent. They present strategic opportunities and their implications for organisations in regards to these challenges, concluding that organisational need must be linked to the direction of organisational strategy and talent strategy in particular (Schuler, et al.). Clearly there is a wide area of unspecified topics in the field of GTM. In countries such as Germany, China or India, research on this subject is particularly limited, thus there has been much debate over the continuing significance of talent management in the recent years. There are two different views of the importance and the impact of talent  management (Festing, et al., 2013) According to Walk et al. (2013), talent is the most consistent and frequent factor in business success within a global context. For this reason, organisations compete across borders to get the most talented employees. The authors discovered that from the standpoint of an organisation, cross-cultural students are the most valuable, thus they tend to recruit their future employees from this group. Walk et al. also assess work expectations across diverse cultural backgrounds and concluded that differences in expectation are less between Chinese, Indian, and German students than one might suspect (Cf. Walk, et al.).  Ewerlin’s (2013) research on GTM focusses on the influence of talent management program’s attractiveness on an employer. Due to the fact that talented individuals are rare, organisations need to take care that they can position themselves as attractive employers in order to secure the best employees. Talented employees are able to pick and choose between several attractive job offers, therefore they are looking for an additional factors such as good talent management programs. Ewerlin could not confirm that there is a direct relationship between employer attractiveness and their GTM program, however she indicates that these programs should be designed for culturally differences and that personality also plays an important role in shaping the needs of individual employees (Ewerlin). If you compare the current trends and emerging issues of IHRM to the development of other departments within an organisation, especially due to the influence of other areas, there is constant change in IHRM. Additionally to the constant changes IHRM have made, there are a lot of increasing factors to the global market. Several aspects are crucial in the two huge fields of global assignments and careers and global work experience. In the first field there are different facts like work life balance and global work experience. The second area includes the current topics such as GTM programs and the connection to the attractiveness to an employer. Finally there are a lot of new areas of investigation that need to be explored and due to the fact of technical progress and the increasing globalisation it is important  to deal with new challenges in order to stay competitive in the international market. Reference List: Beauregards, T. A. Henry, L. C., 2009. Making the link betwen work-life balance practices and organizational performance. Human resource management review, September, pp. 9-22. Brewster, C., Sparrow, P., Vernon, G. Houldsworth, E., 2011. International Human Resource Management, London: CIPD House. BusinessDictionary.com, 2014. BusinessDictionary.com. [Online] Available at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/expatriate.html Dowling, P. J., Festing, M. Engle, A. D., 2013. International human resource management, 6th Edition. Hampshire: Cengage Learning. Durham, M. G. Kellner, D. M., 2006. media and cultural studies. Carlton: Blackwell. Ewerlin, D., 2013. The influence of global talent management on employer attractiveness: An experimental study. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 279304. FELO Research, 2014. feloreseach. [Online] Available at: http://feloresearch.info/ Festing, M. et al., 2013. Current issues in International HRM: Alternative forms of assignments, careers and talent management in a global context. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 161-166. Kollinger-Santer, I. Fischlmayr, I. C., 2013. Work life balance up in the air Does gender make a difference between female and male internation business travelers. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, 09, pp. 195-223. Schuler, R. S., Jackson, S. E. Tarique, I., 2012. Global talent management and global talent challenges: strategic opportunities for IHRM, New York: Journal of World Business. Scullion, H. Collings, D. G., 2011. Global Talent Management. New York: Routledge. Shaffer, M. A., Kraimer, M. L., Chen, Y.-P. Bolino, M. C., 2012. Choices, Challenges, and Career Consequences of Global Work Experiences: A Review and Future Agenda. Journal of Management, pp. 1281-1327. Vaiman, V. Haslberger, A., 2013. Talent Manamgent of Self-Initaited Expatriates, Hampshire: PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. Walk, M., Schinnenburg, H. Handy, F., 2013. What do talens want? Work expectations in India, China, and Germany. German Journal of Research in Human Resource Management, pp. 251-278. WorkLifeBalance, 2014. WorkLifeBalance. [Online] Available at: http://www.worklifebalance.com/

The Characteristics of Foreign Exchange markets

The Characteristics of Foreign Exchange markets Foreign exchange refers to money denominated in the currency of another nation or group of nations. Foreign exchange can be cash, bank deposits or other short-term claims. But in the foreign exchange market as the network of major foreign exchange dealers engaged in high-volume trading, foreign exchange almost always take the form of an exchange of bank deposits of different national currency denominations. Market Characteristics The foreign exchange market place is a twenty-four hour market with exchange rates and market conditions changing constantly. However, foreign exchange activity does not flow evenly. Over the course of a day, there is a cycle characterized by periods of very heavy activity and other periods or relatively light activity. Business is most heavy when two or more market places are active at the same time such as Asia and Europe or Europe and America. Give this uneven flow of business around the clock, market participants often will respond less aggressively to an exchange rate development that occurs at a relative inactive time of day, and will wait to see whether the development is confirmed when the major markets open. Nonetheless, the twenty-four hour market does provide a continuous real-time market assessment of the currencies values. The market consists of a limited number of major dealer institutions that are particularly active in foreign exchange, trading with customers and (more often) with each other. Most, but not all, are commercial banks and investment banks. The institutions are linked each other through telephones, computers and other electronic means. There are estimated 2,000 dealer institutions in the world, making up the global exchange market. Each nations market has its own infrastructure. For foreign exchange market operations as well as for other matters, each country enforces its own laws, banking regulations, accounting rules, and tax codes. They also have different national financial systems and infrastructures through which transactions are executed and within the currencies are held. With access to all of the foreign exchange markets generally open to participants from all countries, and with its vast amounts of market information transmitted simultaneously and almost instantly to dealers throughout the world, there is an enormous amount of cross-border foreign exchange trading amongst dealers as well as between dealers and their customers. At any moment, the exchange rates of major currencies tend to be virtually identical in all of the financial centers. Rarely are there such substantial price differences among these centers as to provide major opportunities for arbitrage. Over-the-Counter vs. Exchange-Traded Segment There are generally two different market segments within the foreign exchange market: over-the-counter (OTC) and exchange-trade. In the OTC market, banks indifferent locations make deals via telephone or computer systems. The market is largely unregulated. Thus, a bank in a country such the USA does not need any special authority to trade or deal in foreign exchange. Transactions can be carried out on whatever terms and with whatever provisions are permitted by law and acceptable to the two counter-parties, subject to the standard commercial law governing business transactions in the respective countries. However, there are best practice recommendations such from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York with respects to trading activities, relationships, and other matters. Trading practices on the organized exchanges and the regulatory arrangements covering the exchanges, are markedly different from those in the OTC market. In the exchange, trading takes place publicly in a centralized location and products are standardized. There are margin payments, daily marking to market, and a cash settlement through a central clearinghouse. With respects to regulations in the USA, exchanges at which currency futures are traded are under the jurisdiction of the Commodity Futures Trading Corporation (CFTC). Steps are being taken internationally to harmonize trade regulations and to improve the risk management practices of dealers in the foreign exchange market and to encourage greater transparency and disclosure. The various parties involved Today, commercial banks and investment banks serve as the major dealers by executing transactions and providing foreign exchange services. Some, but not all, are market makers, that regularly quote both bids and offers for one ore more particular currencies thus standing ready to make a two-sided market for its customers. Dealers also trade foreign exchange as part of the banks proprietary trading activities, where the firms own capital is put at risk on various strategies. A proprietary trader is looking for a larger profit margin based on a directional view about a currency, volatility, an interest rate that is about to change, a trend or a major policy move. . Payment and Settlement Systems Executing a foreign exchange transaction requires two transfers of money value, in opposite directions, since it involves the exchange of one national currency for another. Execution of the transaction engages the payment and settlement systems of both nations. Payment is the transmission of an instruction to transfer value that results from a transaction in the economy, and settlement is the final and unconditional transfer of the value specified in a payment instruction. The foreign exchange instruments Spot: A spot transaction is a straight forward (or outright) exchange of one currency for another. The sport rate is the current market price, the benchmark price. Outright Forwards: An outright forward transaction is a straight forward single purchase/sale of one currency for another, that is settled on a day pre-arranged date three or more business days after the deal date. FX Swaps: In the FX swap market, one currency is swapped for another for a period of time, and then swapped back, creating an exchange and re-exchange. Currency swaps: In a typical currency swap, counter-parties will (i) exchange equal initial principle amounts of two currencies at the spot exchange rate, (ii) exchange a stream of fixed or floating interest rate payments in their swapped currencies for the agreed period of the swap and then (iii) re-exchange the principle amount at maturity at the initial spot exchange rate. Direct and Indirect Quotation for Exchange Rates Purpose: This component enables you to manage exchange rates for each currency pair using direct or indirect quotation. The type of quotation used is dependent on the market standard. You can define the type of quotation per client and currency pair (business transaction). Indirect quotation has not been required until now, because direct quotation was usually used for exchange rates. With the start of the dual currency phase of the European Monetary Union (EMU), indirect quotation is now used within Europe for exchange rates with the euro. Indirect quotation is also becoming more widely accepted internationally. Until now, there were many limitations involved in processing indirect exchange rates. Direct quotation is where the cost of one unit of foreign currency is given in units of local currency, whereas indirect quotation is where the cost of one unit of local currency is given in units of foreign currency. Your local currency is GBP: Direct exchange rate: 1USD = 0.6464 GBP Indirect exchange rate: 1GBP = 1.5470 USD Direct or indirect quotation can be maintained as the standard form of quotation for a certain currency pair. You use: 1 for direct quotation 2 for indirect quotation If a standard form of quotation has not been specified for a currency pair, the system automatically uses direct quotation. Foreign currency options: A foreign exchange or currency option contract gives the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy/sell a specified amount of one currency for another at a specified price on a specified date. That differs from a forward contract, in which the parties are obligated to execute the transaction on the maturity date. An OTC foreign exchange option is a bilateral contract between two parties. In contrast to the exchange-traded options market, in the OTC market, no clearing-house stands between the two parties, and there is no regulatory body establishing trading rules. Trade mechanics Dealer institutions trade with each other in two basic ways: direct dealing and through a brokers market. The mechanics of the two approaches are quite different, and both have been changed by technological advances in recent years. Direct Dealing: Each of the major market makers shows a running list of its main bid and offer rates that is, the prices at which it will buy and sell the major currencies, spot and forward and those rates are displayed to all market participants on their computer screens. The dealer shows his prices for the base currency expressed in amounts of the terms currency. Although the screens are updated regularly throughout the day, the rates are only indicative-to get a firm price, a trader or customer must contact the bank directly. A trader can contact a market maker to ask for a two-way quote for a particular currency. Theories of Fund Flow Fund flow is usually measured on a monthly or quarterly basis.  The performance of an asset or fund is not taken into account, only share redemptions (outflows) and share purchases (inflows).   Net inflows create excess cash for managers to invest, which theoretically creates demand for securities such as stocks and bonds.  Ã‚   Law of one price The law of one price is another way of stating the concept of purchasing power parity. The law of one price exists due to arbitrage opportunities. If the price of a security, commodity or asset is different in two different markets, then an arbitrageur will purchase  the asset in the cheaper market and sell it where prices are higher. When the purchasing power parity doesnt hold, arbitrage profits will persist until the price converges across markets. Foreign exchange risk exposure : We can define exposure as the sensitivity real home currency value of an asset, liability or an operating income to an unknown change in the exchange rate, moreover foreign exchange risk means variabilty of the domestic currency values of assets, liabilities operating income due to unknown changes in exchange rate. The foreign exchange business is by nature risky because it deals primarily in risk measuring it, pricing it, accepting it when appropriate managing it. Market Risk: Market risk, in simple terms, is price risk, or exposure to adverse price change. For a dealer in foreign exchange, two major elements of market risk are exchange risk and interest rate risk. Exchange rate risk is inherent in foreign exchange trading. Interest rate risk arises when there is any mismatching or gap in the maturity structure. Thus, an uncovered outright forward position can change in value, not only because of a change in spot rate but also because of a change in interest rates, since a forward rate reflects interest rate differential between the two currencies. Credit Risk: Credit risk arises from the possibility that the counter-party to a contract cannot or will not make the agreed payment at maturity. In foreign exchange trading, banks have long been accustomed to dealing with the broad and pervasive problem of credit risk. Know your customer is a cardinal rule and credit limits or dealing limits are set for each counter-party and adjusted in response to changes in financial circumstances. Over the past decade or so, banks have become willing to consider margin trading when a client requires a dealing limit larger than the banks is prepared to provide. Under this arrangement, the client places a certain amount of collateral with the bank and can then trade much larger amounts. Other Risks: Numerous other forms of risks can be involved in the foreign exchange trading, such as liquidity risk, legal risk and operational risk. The latter is the risk of losses from inadequate systems, human error, or lack of proper oversight policies and procedures and management control. Interest rate swap and currency swap: Interest rate swaps: This type of swaps are derivatives as the the underlying asset is not exchanged in the trancation. It is an agreement in which two parties exchange interest payments of differing nature on an imaginary amount of principal for a defined time span. Actually, it is an exchange of different cash flows; one generated by a fixed interest rate on a sum, the other by a floating interest rate on the same sum. For instance, a party (such as a depository institute) that earns a steady stream of income may prefer one which matches (fluctuates with) the market interest rates. It may agree to exchange its interest income on a certain sum (say ten million dollars of principal) for a certain period (say one year) with another party (such as a mutual fund) which earns a fluctuating interest income but prefers a steady one. Currency swap: An agreement between two parties to exchange  interest  payments and principal on loans denominated in two different currencies. In a cross currency swap, a loans interest payments and principal in one currency would be exchanged for an equal valued loan and interest payments in a different currency. Different Types of Foreign currency option: Arrangement in which a party acquires (upon payment of a fee) the right but not the obligation to buy or sell a specified amount of a currency on a fixed date and at a fixed rate. Such options are used usually by importers as a hedge against exchange rate fluctuations. See also foreign exchange contract. Call Option: The call options give the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy the underlying shares at a predetermined price, on or before a determined date. Put Option: A Put Option gives the holder the right to sell a specified number of shares of an underlying security at a fixed price for a period of time. Knock-Out Options: These are like standard options except that they extinguish or cease to exist if the underlying market reaches a pre-determined level during the life of the option. The knockout component generally makes them cheaper than a standard Call or Put. Knock-in Options These options are the reverse of knockout options because they dont come into existence until the underlying market reaches a certain pre-determined level, at this time a Call or Put option comes into life and takes on all the usual characteristics. Average Rate Options The options have their strikes determined by an averaging process, for example at the end of every month. The profit or loss is determined by the difference between the calculated strike and the underlying market at expiry. Basket Options A basket option has all the characteristics of a standard option, except that the strike price is based on the weighted value of the component currencies, calculated in the buyers base currency. The buyer stipulates the maturity of the option, the foreign currency amounts which make up the basket, and the strike price, which is expressed in units of the base currency. Difference between a call and a put option : The main diffenence in writing a put option and buying a call option is that they both are opposite to each other an elaboration of a put and call option will diffenciate clearly. An inverstor who writes a call option sees the future price of the underlying asser will go up and they will be able to get profit from this investment. An investor who buy put options believe the price of the underlying asset will go down and they will be able to purchase another option on the same asset for reselling at a price lower than the current exercise price. Put Option : Because put options vest the buyer with the right to sell stock at a pre-determined price, these option contracts are frequently used to protected stock holdings from losses in the event of a market decline.   Much like insurance, a stock investor can pay a premium and purchase a put option to protect his holdings.   In the event of a market downturn, he may sell the put option at an increased value to offset any losses or the option may be exercised, and the stock sold, at what would be above market prices. Call option : A call option, often it is simply labeled a call, is a financial contract between two parties, the buyer and the seller of this type of option. The buyer of the call option has the right, but not the obligation to buy an agreed quantity of a particular commodity or financial instrument (the underlying) from the seller of the option at a certain time (the expiration date) for a certain price (the strike price). The seller (or writer) is obligated to sell the commodity or financial instrument should the buyer so decide. The buyer pays a fee (called a premium) for this right. Why are the premiums different with the same contact specifications but different trading dates: The premium is the amount that is offered to the contactor for taking the risk while making a forwad, future or options contract as the investor is making his/her investment safe the contractor is exposed to risk so he/she might charged an amount called premium. The reason that the contract might have different premium amount with the same specifications is that the risk of currency appriciation or depriciation or the maturity of the contract, foir instance if the contract is one month long the premium might be low as the contract time is less and more accurate predictoins can be made by the contractor but if the maturity date is too long it will be difficult for the contractor to predict the future or will be difficult for him to manage his/her own risk do he/she might charge more premium for the transaction. Deep in the money : An option with an exercise price, or strike price, significantly below (for a call option) or above (for a put option) the market price of the underlying asset. Significantly, below/above is considered one strike price below/above the market price of the underlying asset.  For example, if the current price of the underlying stock was $10, a call option with a strike price of $5 would be considered deep in the money. Many option traders (both professionals and individual investors) will exercise, as they have the right, an expiring option that is in-the-money by any amount, even though this amount may be less than OCCs thresholds for automatic exercise. Therefore, you might anticipate assignment on any in-the-money option at expiration. An option is  in-the-money if it has positive intrinsic value that is, if the holder would profit from exercising it. In terms of strike price, a call is in-the-money if the exercise price is below the underlying stocks spot price. A put is in-the -money if the exercise price is above the stocks spot price. If GBP would depreciate against the dollar a call or put option would have been better for a British exporter If the GBP would depreciate against the dollar a call option will be beneficial for a British exporter as he is carrying transactions in dollar and he can buy GBP on low price at the future date and when it appreciates he can again write a put put option to get the benefit

Alcoholism- How Alcohol Affects the Body and Mind Essay -- Alcoholism:

In chemistry terms, alcohol is any organic compound where a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom from an alkyl. A hydroxyl group is a group consisting of an oxygen and hydrogen atom, bonded by a covalent bond. A covalent bonded is when two non-metals are bonded together. The type of alcohol suitable for consumption is known an Ethanol. Ethanol is a straight-chain alcohol, and its molecular formula is C2H5OH. Ethanol is one of the oldest recreational drugs. When a person drinks alcohol, it affects the central nervous system as a depressant, which causes a decrease in activity, anxiety, inhibitions and any underlying tension. Alcohol impairs concentration and judgment, even after only a few drinks. The intake of alcohol slows motor skills and clouds thinking. In some instances, when intoxicated, blackouts and memory loss occur because alcohol cuts off the supply of oxygen to the brain. Every time a person becomes intoxicated thousands of brain cells are killed, because of the lack of oxygen. Another harmful occurrence is blood sludging, or when red blood cells clump together. Blood sludging cuts off oxygen from tissues and kills cells. This type of cell loss causes red eyes in the morning, and broken capillaries. Blood sludging is important to recognize because it can lead to hemorrhaging and furthermore, to death. Alcoholism can be defined as a habitual intoxication or, the prolonged and excessive intake of alcoholic drinks, leading to a breakdown in health and an addiction to alcohol. Symptoms of alcoholism include, but are not limited to: confusion, drinking alone, making excuses to drink, neglecting to eat, not caring for physical appearance, lack of control over drinking and episodes of violence while drinking... ...scovery. 5 May 2004. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. . 9. "Google Health Alcoholism Information | AiR Assistance in Recovery." AiR Assistance in Recovery - Intervention, drug and alcoholism recovery management services. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. . 10. "Health - Delirium tremens." Google. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. . 11. "Hydroxyl." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 8 Oct. 2009. Web. 18 Oct. 2014. . 12. "Alcohol Metabolism." Alcoholism - The Alcoholism Home Page. Web. 22 Oct. 2014. . 13. "Alcohol Metabolism." Elmhurst College: Elmhurst, Illinois. Web. 22 Oct. 2014. .

The Epidemic of Steroid Abuse in America Essay -- Athletic Athletes Sp

The Epidemic of Steroid Abuse in America We as a people are preoccupied with the notion of greatness. Our role models are athletes, actors and actresses, and other figures in the public eye. Many of us often desire to be better off than our current state; to look better, to be in better shape, etc†¦ We compete with each other for jobs, for mates, for grades, for parking spots, and in sporting activities. This competitive nature is a way of life, especially in sporting activities, often learned as a child and built upon throughout adulthood. But where do you draw the line? At what point do the â€Å"costs† of winning or being â€Å"better† outweigh the benefits? Maybe it’s too much when you start putting your own health in serious jeopardy just to look better or run faster. The use of steroids, other than for medical purposes, has extremely negative effects on one’s health. Nonetheless the use of steroids, to enhance athletic performance and increase muscle mass, is on the rise. There needs to be mandatory steroid testing in all professional, and where applicable, amateur sports. Steroid testing is a good as start as any to help curb steroid abuse. Anabolic-Androgenic steroids, often solely called anabolic steroids, are: â€Å"chemicals that act like hormones--substances normally in your body that regulate bodily functions† (Kowalski 1). They are synthetic substances, meaning man-made, which have two functions: the anabolic effect which causes an increase in the growth of muscle mass and the androgenic effect which causes, or increases, the development of male sexual characteristics. It’s the anobolic effect that most steroid users, or abusers, are after. Steroid abusers take steroids for a couple of different reasons.... ...pac.library.csupomona.edu/>. Sherman, William. â€Å"Growing Nightmare of Steroid Abuse: Athletes’ Cocktail Big in Nation’sGyms.† Daily News (New York). 28 July 2002, Sports Final ed.: p. 4. Lexis Nexis 4 Nov. 2002. . United States. Consumer Affairs, Tourism and Foreign Commerce Subcommittee of the Senate Commerce, Science and Transportation Committee. Hearing. Washington D.C.: Senate Office Building, 2002. Lexis Nexis 4 Nov. 2002. . Verducci, Tom. â€Å"Totally Juiced.† Sports Illustrated. 3 June 2002, V. 26: No. 93. Wilson Web Article Index 4 Nov. 2002. . Yesalis, Charles E., and Virginia S. Cowart. The Steroids Game. Illinois: Human Kinetics, 1998.

Separation Or Assimilation? :: essays research papers

Separation or Assimilation? Our country, The United States of America, was essentially founded on the principles of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness through solidarity of human kind. In Bernard R. Boxill's article, "Separation or Assimilation," he fundamentally poses the Hamletesque question: to assimilate or not to assimilate. Subsequent to the dilemma of some black cultural nationalists, whom not only argue for assimilation of the black American populace, but also believe that this assimilation into white culture is inevitable, against cultural pluralism. Cultural pluralism, which was initialized by W. E.B. Dubois in the late 19th century, is founded upon the peculiarities of races, living harmoniously in one nation-state, and lacking superiority or inferiority. Consequently to posing this question one dictates that there exist certain boundaries between cultures in our American society. Where do these boundaries come from and are they indeed necessary? Is integration of these cultures indeed inevitable? The goal of cultural pluralism as stated by Boxill are to establish pride in one's own race, to maintain the authenticity of one's own culture, and finally to benefit the world populace. Through pride, the disdain of inferiorities along with self respect, one adopts an attitude of self- segregation. Boxill argues for pride as a means of preserving one's race, overemphasizing differences between individuals because of the color of their skin or cultural differences, is a great defense to assimilation. Understanding Dubois's concept of cultural authenticity is to delve into the mysteries of self-actualization, that is to realize one's own potential. He asks himself, as an African American, whether his true identity lies in the jungles of Africa or in this land of America. He is of the opinion that these are his only two options. He concludes that his true identity goes beyond his American birth, citizenship, political ideals, language, laws, and religion; deep into the heart of Africa where a timeless culture was born and should be preserved for its beauty and used to benefit the world populace. "...the Negro people, as a race, have a contribution to make..."(Dubois,p244) The "Negro people" as a race, have certainly had a peculiar world condition throughout time and have had the ability to lend privileged insights into the human condition. The whole of humanity consists of many parts. From the cultural pluralist perspective, this whole can be benefitted most by the contribution of gifts from each race of humanity. But does not true diversity exist in individual persons rather than in large groups of unique individuals. It would seem obvious that the greatest degree of solidarity of humanity can be achieved

The links between school bullying and mugging and there affects on individuals lives

Is it possible that school bullying and mugging are closely linked? If so, can they have permanent side – effects on an individual's life? Too tall, too short, too fat, too thin†¦. I hate my hair†¦ I need a better car†¦ I can't wear that dress as I wore it last week†¦. these are the questions I faced the other morning, the silly thing is that I am confident that millions of other people are waking up and lobbying mini arguments within their minds of similar matters. But why are these matters so important? A very open question, yet in all generalisation can be linked to the word SOCIETY. Blumer (1969) identifies this as noted below: â€Å"Basically human behaviour is not determined by social forces. Rather, people are simply self – conscious beings†¦ † He states that due to ones self consciousnesses, questions similar to the ones asked above arise. The self consciousness of an individual is induced by those labels attached to us through the sub cultures in which we exist. These are closely linked to our childhood educational experiences. Control theory implies that social services will decrease levels of deviant behaviour by strengthening the bond between the adolescent and society. Labelling theory implies the reverse, that the process of formal adjudication through the juvenile court will first stabilize and then increase levels of deviant behaviour. Diversion programs were originally developed as an application of labelling theory, with the objectives of minimizing involvement with the juvenile court, referring adolescents to less stigmatizing social services, and ultimately reducing levels of deviant behaviour. An additional issue has been the effect of gender on service delivery to adolescents in the juvenile justice system. This paper examines these four issues using panel data and multiple regression of follow-up on baseline variables. The term ‘bullying' refers not only to physical and verbal abuse, but psychological attacks intended to inflict fear, distress and to physically harm the victim (Farrington, 1993). Extensive research into the bullying/victim relationship shows that there are two distinct groups (or subcultures). For example, Olweus (1991) found that only one bully in ten was also a victim, while only one victim in eighteen was also a bully (taken from Fishman, Mesch, Eisikovits, 2002). This assumption shows that victims and offenders originate from different parts of society and are in fact judged upon popularity and peer acceptance rather than merit. In fact personal merit i. e. educational achievements, alongside social and physical appearance (Salmivalli, 1998) can turn an ordinary individual into a victim within an educational setting. In comparison, perpetrators saw themselves as being physically fit and popular among their peer group. Those who were victims were often those who felt unpopular and lacked the social skills to form peer relationships. According to Farrington (1993), Adolescents who lack good friends have no support when exposed to an offender's aggressive behaviour. The term ‘mugging' refers to a psychological fear and possible physical attack on a victim. When pupils are constantly being assessed and classified, it is on this basis that they are defined as able or less able. Then placed accordingly in particular sets or streams, entered for particular examinations and given or denied access to certain parts of the school curriculum. Teachers are more likely to define middle rather than working class pupils as the ‘able bodies', the ‘good students' and the ‘well – behaved' based on first impressions or certain stereo-types such as a middle class family is more likely to take interest in there child's education. This in turn disadvantages the working class pupils. A label is a major identifying characteristic. If for example, a pupil is labelled as ‘bright', others will respond to him/her and interpret their actions in terms of this label. There is a tendency for self – fulfilling prophecy to result. The pupil will only act in terms of the label and see themselves as bright, thus fulfilling the prophecy others have made. Muggings are thought of, at times, worse than bullying as the ordeal can leave a psychological scar in the way that person may perceive people in the future. The level of this can vary depending on the loss of items or the ordeal itself. All these factors will cause the victim to look at people in a different way, or even change their own behaviour in the future, asking themselves questions like ‘should I take this much money with me? ‘ or ‘should I tuck this chain in? ‘. Bullying is most commonly thought of as occurring in classrooms but unfortunately has a lasting effect on ones development from adolescence to adulthood to the outside world. It is the ‘name calling' and constant ‘teasing' that makes the individual being bullied i. e. the victim, begin to turn into themselves and think about who they really are. They create questions and insecurities within their own thoughts, as to why they in particular have been singled out as the ‘odd one' that does not ‘fit in'. Questions such as what are they calling me, why are they calling me by such names and what factors of myself do I need to change to avoid being called the latter†¦ (Which takes us back to the very beginning of this analysis) †¦ Too tall, too short, too fat too thin†¦. I hate my hair†¦ I need a better car†¦ I can't wear that dress as I wore it last week†¦. The creation of society! If bullying and mugging were earthquakes, the understanding of the epicentre is imperative, the two tectonic plates grinding, causing the earthquake, would be the Labelling theory and Subculture theories. These two theories lend a hand in explaining how and why anti social behaviour such as bullying may arise and its effects on society at large. The Sub cultural theory suggests that society is made up from several sub cultures that can each be defined by their own set of values and norms, separate from those of the wider society. Members within a sub culture share common values and have similar behavioural patterns, often based around social characteristics, such as ethnicity or styles generated by individuals within a sub culture. Sub cultures usually share some features with the host culture, but may also be oppositional to it. Sub cultural theories attempt to explain why these groups, most of which are concerned with ‘youth gangs' and gang delinquency, engage in deviant acts. The theories also analysed the formation of delinquent youth subcultures within the context of strains and pressures exerted by society. According to Cohen (1955) sub cultures are formed within an educational setting due to status deprivation. This is where a desirable ‘status' such as being popular or accepted by peer groups would be sought after by students and invariably be found through creating a sub culture. For those individuals where status was denied, Cohen (1955) again suggesting this to be a direct result of failure by the educational system leading to failure at work, status deprivation was resolved by the formation of primary groups (the most common form of which was gangs) (Cohen, 1955). By creating specific sub cultures, members, predominately young males, allowed themselves to achieve status positions within a structured group therefore satisfying their desire for some form of status (Cohen, 1955). These sub cultures often resulted to violent and aggressive behaviour towards their peer groups, taunting and victimising other youths, both physically and psychologically. Cohen claimed that if the educational system were to allow an alternative outlet for such status satisfaction, then the need to create a sub culture would be destroyed thus avoiding the anti social behaviour such as bullying. Using Cohen's ideas, it can be said that a bully will be looking for a desirable status. The mugger can be seen as one of these subgroups, and can be seen as a subgroup of bullying (taking it one step further by taking someone else's possessions) or as a subgroup of a gang (where the act is carried out within a group). It is possible for this to give the individual, or an individual within a group, a certain level of status and gained acceptance within a group. Where the Sub cultural theory attempts to explain bullying as a result of social definitions and status, interactionsists suggest that this is not the case. Interactionism, according to Blumer (1969) indicates three central beliefs that characterise social behaviour. Firstly, ‘human beings act towards things on the basis of the meaning that things have for them'. This means that human behaviour is not determined by social forces but rather that people are simply self conscious beings. Secondly, ‘the meaning of things is derived from, or arises out of the social interaction that one has with one's fellow's'. Here Blumer (1969) suggests that meanings are not fixed but are continually tailored and adjusted as individuals integrate with one another. Thirdly, ‘group action takes the form of a fitting together of individual lines of action'. Thus society is not so much a determinant of human action as a product of human activity. Social order is therefore inherently fragile, as it is highly dependant on shared, miscellaneous meanings. So the Interactionism idea would explain mugging as the 1st central belief, ‘human beings act towards things on the basis of the meaning that things have for them'. Thus saying, that a mugger may carry out their act based on what they will gain from it, which could be anything from increased wealth to other possessions. An alternative would be that the person only carries out a mugging based on meanings that are adjusted, such as the person will have carried out the mugging based on a new circumstance or new scenario, which would not have been the case the day, week or year before. Already it is clear to see how these two theories present opposing explanations to bullying and mugging. On one hand the sub cultural theory claims that there are rigid norms and values within society, forcing individuals to comply with the rules. It implies that those who do not conform or are deprived the chance to gain social recognition and desired statuses within society are forced to create their own group in which they can achieve status satisfaction. On the other hand, interactionism argues there are no fixed rules but rather ever changing, shared values that are dependent upon social interaction. It suggests that the extent of bullying and mugging is dependent upon how individuals interact within society. From interactionism stems a new approach which once initiated is widely known as the Labelling theory. The classic formation of this theory is that of Howard Becker 63†², who said ‘.. The central fact about deviance (is that) it is created by society. I do not mean this in the way it is ordinarily understood, in which the causes of deviance are located in the social situation of the deviant or in â€Å"social factors† which prompt his action. Rather, those social groups create deviance by making the rules whose infraction constitution deviance and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders. From this point of view, deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an â€Å"offender†. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied – deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label'. Howard Becker 63†² Labelling and bullying both occur simultaneously throughout levels in schools. For example, the breakdown of a ‘typical' classroom layout is that of many diversities and similarities at the same time. There are two different approaches when discussing the relationship between social cognition and social behaviour, and specifically, between emotion and bullying. An information-processing model which shows how aggressive behaviour as resulting from processing biases in one or more steps in a 5 stages social information process (Dodge, Pettit, McClaskey and Brown, 1986; Dodge and Feldman, 1990; Crick and Dodge, 1994). It is this theory when applied to bullies and victims that this social skill deficit model tells us that bullies do in fact have similar deficits to aggressive children. However the victims, on the other hand, lack these social skills of assertiveness and group entry. As a direct result, this in turn means they have less experience in social interaction, in the teasing and play fighting which both in family and peer relationships, may enhance the interpretation processes of emotional expression, social skills, sense of control and self-efficacy (Smith, Bowers, Binney and Cowie, 1993). Labelling and mugging occur early on, during school. For example, the mugger is grouped as being from a poor family or labelled as a ‘trouble maker' by their elders. Giving the child a negative image and possible loss in their confidence to perform to what ‘society' expects. The muggers' emotion can vary; one could say that they lack any compassion to their victim and only have their eyes on their reward. But from another perspective, one could say that the mugger may feel compassion but due to the circumstances they are in, they feel like this would be their only solution. Advocates of this power-based theory (i. e. bullies simply bullying others around them to gain power over other less superior individuals than themselves), argue that bullies' desire for power or control is often strengthened by various social stereotypes about bullying including the negative reinforcement of the media (see the earlier discussion on social tolerance of bullying). It is has been said that bullies behaviour is cold and manipulative and that they are experts in social contexts. The problem of their behaviour can be directly related to the many emotions that surround moral transgression such as guilt and shame. Can it then be questioned as to whether; bullies actually understand other children's emotions but simply do not share them; thus lacking in empathy? Or perhaps they merely are unable to identify the suffering and pain in the victims and therefore they lack social skills? How do they feel during a bullying episode? Can and do bullies feel great for having been tough or have they the human emotion of guilt and feeling responsible for what they have done? If labelling exists within the educational system, and we have seen above how it is valid, then it is not only the behaviour of the bully and mugger that must be reprimanded but that of those who attach these labels. Looking at the educational system, it appears that those in authority, like teachers and others working alongside schools and the pupils inflict these labels upon them. By labelling these individuals, teachers will group these individuals into categories or boxes, thus causing divisions and a hierarchy within the class, and the educational system as a whole. This is because individual will tend to act according to the labels attached to them, thus fulfilling a self fulfilling prophecy. So from this we can see that there is a link between muggers and bullies. It can be seen that both want, in most cases, some level of status or acceptance and that both are categorised and labelled. Any individual that experiences either of these will also be left with psychological scars, which in-turn will change the victim in the way they behave or perceive things. The perception and behavioural changes are not likely to change with ease, and could possibly be detrimental to the individual. Social identity argues that social cooperation is a product of activation of a social identity. Social identity can be thought of as the psychological link between the self and the collective, in this case the school community. Through social identification, the school becomes a positive reference group for the pupil. When a student identifies with the school community, he or she sees themselves as interdependent with this community and he or she behaves cooperatively, upholding the school's rules and values. Tyler 1998, made a similar point. He argued that there were two inter-related aspects to self-worth: the collective and the individual. The collective aspect is reflected in pride in being a member of a school community, in terms of education. The individual aspect is reflected in having respect within this community. Tyler said, â€Å"As self-worth within a community increases in terms of pride and respect, social cooperation within that community also increases†. In other words, what each of us does is strive for a sense of belongingness and significance. Not only meeting our individual needs, but becoming a member of a positive reference group is also importance to us in society. After all, we are social animals. Work by Eliza Ahmed and her colleagues (2000) suggest that one barrier that needs to be addressed is the affective barrier associated with shame. The shame associated with a harmful act acts as a barrier to us thinking of ourselves as a fully integrated member of a community. Indeed, recent findings have shown that shame-management has been found to be an important mediating variable in the understanding of bullying and victimization (Ahmed et al. , forthcoming). The maintenance of bonds is mutually related to emotion: emotions are a means of cohesion. Nathanson (1992) has also argued that shame is the central social regulator that governs our social relations with others. Shame, as such, is closely connected with solidarity (in group cooperation) and alienation (out group competition). Humans are inherently social animals; lapses in important social bonds affect us as individuals. Threatened or damaged bonds create an environment for shame. A long period of unacknowledged shame arises from and generates failure of social connectedness as stated by Retzinger, 1991. Shame can be conceptualised as a thermostat; if it fails to function informatively about the state of our social relationships, regulation of relationships becomes impossible. Thus, shame is an important signal about the state of our social relationships. Shame management involves the search for coherence of identity. Acknowledgment of shame can lead to a greater integrity of the self and our social world; shame avoidance can lead to social alienation and conflict with the self and our social world. To conclude, it is safe to say that the links between school bullying and mugging and their affects on individual's lives are very prominent, and it seems both issues are here to stay in the twenty first century. It seems studies have shown that both bullying and mugging can have permanent side – effects on an individual's life. However, it would appear that if these bullies had not been boxed into groups, thus they would not fulfil their prophecy. Batsche and Knoff (1994) assert that the goal of creating safe schools cannot be achieved unless the issue of bullying is adequately addressed. In order to fully examine the issue of bullying, one would need to pay close attention to the structure of determinants of bullying from personal to social factors; focusing on various forms of relationships that exist in not only our personal lives but in our social lives. For example, relationships between bullies and families, schools and society; all affect the way we behave. It is these other relationships among the victims, bullies and bystanders; as well as relationships between counsellors and other school staff, that are all working together as a team combat bullying. These two theories have shown in this discussion that school bullying and mugging are linked and that bullying can only lead to far worse behavioural problems in the future – both physical and mental.